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Die Totung von Menschen wird in vielen biblischen Texten thematisiert. Locus classicus ist das Totungsverbot im Dekalog (Ex 20,13; Dtn 5,17).Im Kontext von Krieg oder als Strafe fur schwerwiegende Verbrechen erschien die Totung eines Menschen fur die Verfasser der biblischen Texte wohl kaum problematisch. Gott selbst wird als jemand beschrieben, der das Toten von Personen anordnet und Menschen toten fur ihn. Manchmal ist es sogar Gott selbst, der totet.Andere biblische Aussagen und Traditionen sperren sich gegenuber dieser Sicht: Wurde der Mensch nicht nach dem Bild Gottes geschaffen (Gen 1,26-27; 9,6)? Die Gottahnlichkeit des Menschen impliziert das Verbot, einen Menschen zu toten. In diesem Kontext steht bekanntlich auch das 5. Gebot des Dekalog: Du sollst nicht toten!Die zentrale Frage des vorliegenden Bandes ist, ob und wie biblische und nicht-biblische Totungsverbote als Norm in der Antike funktionieren. Beitrage aus den Bereichen des altorientalischen und antiken Rechts, der Bibelwissenschaft, der alten Geschichte, des antiken Judentums und der fruhen Kirchengeschichte geben Einblicke in diese bis heute aktuelle Thematik. Fachkundige Experten behandeln das Totungsverbot, indem sie die zentralen Frage- und Problemstellungen, die sich in altorientalischer, patristischer und mittelalterlicher Zeit unterschiedlich darstellen, kritisch beleuchten und diskutieren.

At the twilight of the Weimar Republic, politicians, scientists, and theologians were engaged in debates surrounding the so-called "Jewish Question." When the Nazi Party came to power in 1933, these discussions took on a new sense of urgency and poignancy. As state measures against Jews unfolded, theological conceptions of the meaning of "Israel" and "Judaism" began to impact living, breathing Jewish persons.In this study, Ryan Tafilowski traces the thought of the Lutheran theologian Paul Althaus (18881966), who once greeted the rise of Hitler as a "gift and miracle of God," as he negotiated the "Jewish Question" and its meaning for his understanding of Germanness across the Weimar Republic, the Nazi years, and the post-war period. In particular, the study uncovers the paradoxical categories Althaus used to interpret the ongoing theological significance of the Jewish people, whom he considered both an imminent threat to German ethnic identity and yet a mysterious cipher by which Germans might decode their own spiritual destiny in world history.Sketching the peculiar contours of Althaus theology of Israel, this study offers a fresh interpretation of the Erlangen Opinion on the Aryan Paragraph, which is an important artifact not only of the Kirchenkampf, but also of the complex and ambivalent history of Christian antisemitism. By bringing Althaus into conversation with some of the most influential theologians of the twentieth centuryfrom Karl Barth and Emil Brunner to Rudolf Bultmann and Dietrich BonhoefferTafilowski broadens the scope of his inquiry to vital questions of political theology, ethnic identity, social ethics, and ecclesiology. As Christian theologians must once again reckon with questions of national self-understanding under the pressures of mass migration and resurgent nationalisms, this investigation into the logic of ethno-nationalist theologies is a timely contribution.

The contributors to this volume examine the complex and dynamic role that Protestant majorities and minorities played in shaping the Reformations of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. In doing so, it offers an important perspective on the range of intellectual, social, economic, political, theological and ecclesiological factors that governed intra- and inter-confessional encounter in the early modern period. While the principal focus is on the situation of different Protestant majority and minority groups, many of the contributions also engage the relation of Protestants and Catholics, with a number also considering early modern Christian dialogue with Muslims and Jews.The volume is organised into five sections, which together provide a comprehensive picture of Protestant majorities and minorities. The first section explores intellectual trajectories, especially those which promoted confessional unity or sought to break down confessional boundaries. The second section, taking the neglected Spanish Reformation as an important case-study, examines the clandestine aspect of minority activities and the efforts of majorities to control and suppress them. The third section pursues a similar theme but examines it through the lens of Flemish and Walloon Reformed refugee communities in Germany and the Netherlands, demonstrating the way in which confessional factors could lead to the integration or exclusion of minorities. The fourth section examines marginal or peripheral Reformations, whether geographically or doctrinally understood, focussing on attempts to implement reform in the shadow of the Ottoman Empire. Finally, the fifth section looks at confessional identity and otherness as a principal theme of majority and minority relations, providing both theoretical and practical frameworks for its evaluation.

This volume invites scholars of the Catholic and Protestant Reformations to incorporate recent advances in transnational and transregional history into their own field of research, as it seeks to unravel how cross-border movements shaped reformations in early modern Europe. Covering a geographical space that ranges from Scandinavia to Spain and from England to Hungary, the chapters in this volume apply a transregional perspective to a vast array of topics, such as the history of theological discussion, knowledge transfer, pastoral care, visual allegory, ecclesiastical organization, confessional relations, religious exile, and university politics.The volume starts by showing in a first part how transfer and exchange beyond territorial circumscriptions or proto-national identifications shaped many sixteenth-century reformations. The second part of this volume is devoted to the acceleration of cultural transfer that resulted from the newly-invented printing press, by translation as well as transmission of texts and images. The third and final part of this volume examines the importance of mobility and migration in causing transregional reformations. Focusing on the process of crossing borders in peripheries and borderlands, all chapters contribute to the de-centering of religious reform in early modern Europe. Rather than princes and urban governments steering religion, the early modern reformations emerge as events shaped by authors and translators, publishers and booksellers, students and professors, exiles and refugees, and clergy and (female) members of religious orders crossing borders in Europe, a continent composed of fractured states and regions.

This volume examines the role of identity formation and stages of sequencing of the steps of reconciliation which is an enduring rather than ad an ad hoc phenomenon. RIPAR 4 asks for both the challenges to it from the domestic and international systems and the actors involved, as well as for the role of history, memory and remembrance either as catalysts for or obstacles to reconciliation. The analyzing of the connection among the past, the present and the future in actual or prospective reconciliation embraces all these topics and questions.Influenced by the crisis in the former Sovjet Union following the March 2014 Russian annexation/integration of Crimea and the movement of Russian soldiers into Eastern Ukraine to aid Ukrainian separatists the essays in this volume were written in 2015. Reconciliation is a frequently ill-defined term. As an aspiration in this volume it encompasses three senses: an incipient, thin and minimal form amounting to passive, peaceful coexistence after enmity; a more elaborate, intermediate and engaged form that is captured by the term rapprochement; and a thick or fuller form denoting active friendship, empathy, trust, magnanimity and, ultimately, amity. Beyond the definitional goal, the volume addresses ten themes. Firstly, reconciliation is being questioned as a process and/ or a terminal condition. A view is made on the requirements for the transition from conflict to a reconciliatory process, and the obstacles to beginning a process of reconciliation. Its soft and hard expressions inter alia in emotional and political dimensions are also subject of the authors interest. The observations about conflict and cooperation offered in this volume wish to add significantly to the burgeoning literature of reconciliation. These essays demonstrate that we need a variety of disciplinary and theoretical perspectives to grapple with conflict and to promote reconciliation.

This is a study on Reformed theological debates during the Long Eighteenth Century in Britain and New England. By Long a period that goes beyond 17001799 is in view. This examination begins just before the eighteenth century by looking at the Neonomian-Antinomian debate in the 1690s. This is followed by the Marrow Controversy in Scotland in the eighteenth century. After that, the authors address the ecclesiological debates between George Whitefield and the Erskines. The doctrine of free choice concerning Edwards and his departure from classical Reformed orthodoxy is highlighted next, followed by reflections on the Edwardseans and the atonement. Returning to Britain again, the volume provides a study on hyper-Calvinism, and on eschatological differences among key figures in the eighteenth century. More specific debates in particular Baptist circles are noted, including the battle over Sandemandianism and the Trinitarian battles fought by Andrew Fuller and others. Returning to ecclesiology, a discussion on the subscription controversy in Philadelphia in the early eighteenth century and an analysis of the debate about the nature of revival in New England close this volume.

The doctrine of the pactum salutis (covenant of redemption) offers the idea of a covenant between the very persons of the Trinity for the redemption of humanity. The doctrine received most of its attention in seventeenth-century Reformed theology, and has been criticized and almost totally forgotten in dogmatics since the eighteenth century. Most recent Reformed dogmatics tend to ignore the doctrine or disparage it from biblical, trinitarian, christological, pneumatological, and soteriological perspectives-namely, the doctrine lacks scriptural basis; it is tritheistic; it leads to subordination of the Son; it omits the role of the Holy Spirit; and it applies a deterministic idea for the Christian life. The theologies of Witsius, Owen, Dickson, Goodwin, and Cocceius portray a very robust form of the doctrine. Witsius argues with the help of a peculiar methodology of cross-referencing and collation of related scriptural texts that the doctrine is firmly based on biblical exegesis that was passed on from the patristic era. The doctrine formulated by Owen endorses the doctrines of inseparable operations and terminus operationis so as to give deep insight into the Trinity. In Dicksons doctrine, the Sons voluntary consent and obedience to the will of the Father are highly emphasized. Likewise, Goodwins depiction of the Holy Spirit secures the divinity of the Spirit as well as his indispensable role for the transaction and accomplishment of the pactum. The doctrine in the theology of Cocceius sheds much light on the vibrant dynamic of the Christian life in accordance with the ordo salutis. The doctrine of the pactum salutis of the five Reformed theologians clearly shows that the doctrine is both promised and promising for theology and the life of faith.

Coolhaes was a Reformed preacher, a writer of theology, a critic of the churches of his day, and an advocate of religious diversity. Coolhaes opposed much of the building up of the organization of the Reformed Church in the Northern Netherlands and Dutch Republic in the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries. The struggle between Coolhaes and the Leiden magistrates on one side and the Leiden consistory and fellow-preacher Pieter Cornelisz on the other encapsulated the question of authority which was being asked by many. At the same time, Coolhaes theology, especially his Spiritualistic understanding of the sacraments, his Erastianism, and his views on free will made him suspicious to his Reformed colleagues. The latter of which leading him later to be labeled the forerunner of Arminius and the Remonstrants. All this eventually led to his defrocking at the synod of Middelburg and soon after to excommunication from the Reformed Church. The question this book answers, therefore, is: What sort of church would the critic Coolhaes himself have wanted to design for the new Republic?The first part of the book gives a new biographical sketch. Fresh information, sources, and un-examined works by Coolhaes himself have been uncovered since H.C. Rogges nineteenth-century biography. In the second part the ecclesiology of Coolhaes takes center stage: His ideal church would have been characterized by diversity, for diversity of religious confessions in the same society would stabilize it and diversity of views even within a confession would not harm it.

Theologians, Church Historians, Historical Theologians.

Shakespeares dramas delight and move theatre audiences even today. This is deeply puzzling as they were written more than 400 years ago. Spiritual Shakespeare is an attempt to unravel this mystery. The reason for the unfailing appeal of Shakespeares art lies in the fact that under the surface of often light entertainment Shakespeare is concerned with the deepest and most universal existential challenges of man. The author argues that it is impossible to fully understand this dimension of Shakespeare within the currently dominant materialistic ontology. There have been attempts at exposing the deeper and deeply spiritual level of Shakespeares plays (most notably Martin Lings The Sacred Art of Shakespeare), yet it can best be revealed in the light of Rudolf Steiners spiritual science. This vantage point enables the author to demonstrate i.a. that what is often regarded as irritating inconsistencies in Shakespeares text are in fact subtle guideposts to hidden treasures.

Over the past several centuries, John Owens writings on scripture have captured the attention of numerous interpreters across a relatively diverse range of disciplines. His own distinctive contribution to this doctrine was forged with a genuine fear for the on-going pre-eminence of scriptural authority in the English church firmly in view. In the face of various rival perspectives, Owen insists every Christian believer ought to be clear on the reason they believe scripture to be the word of God. Focussing on the treatise Reason of Faith (1677) in conversation with his wider theological corpus, Andrew M. Leslie studies Owens approach to scriptural authority and Christian faith. He argues that Owen creatively drew upon an ecumenical dogmatic and metaphysical heritage to restate and refine the traditional Reformed position on scriptures divine authority, sensitive to developments in his own late seventeenth-century context. In particular, Leslie explores how Owen shares a growing concern to ground Christian faith in objective evidence, all-the-while ensuring that its ultimate foundation lies in the irresistible authority and truthfulness of God, mediated "in and by" the inspired text of scripture. Leslie also draws out the broader significance Owen ascribes to scripture in shaping a believers relationship with the Triune God, especially its vital role in their gradual transformation into the likeness or image of Christ.

Historians and scholars of the Reformations earliest century are invited to expand their understanding of that critical era by an examination of aspects of Reform which are lesser known than Luther and his activities. This volume widens and deepens and broadens our perceptions of the Reformation and reminds us that in fact what we have in the 16th and early 17th century are Reformations.On the occasion of the 500th anniversary of the German monk and reformer Martin Luther posting his theses (October 31, 1517), the contributors of this volume invite us to expand our understanding of the Reformation by an examination of aspects of Reform which are lesser known than Luther to probe some less-explored corners of the Reformation. To be sure, Martin Luther himself receives attention in this volume. But the aim of this book is really to take the occasion provided by the increased attention paid to the Reformation during the year 2017 to explore other theologians, movements, and ideas. The expanding of the scholarly mind and opening up of new vistas often overshadowed by larger figures, like Luther, can only be good for the study of the Reformation and Early Modern era.This volume is intended for students of early modern Church history with a particular focus on the non-Lutheran aspects of that history.

In this volume, the contributions analyze diverse apocalyptic phenomena, religious and secular alike. The authors use the category of entanglements in order to demonstrate that the terms "religious" and "secular" remain ideal type abstractions, which dissolve upon a closer empirical look. They converge on the assumption that apocalypse as literature genre and lens of interpretation either leads towards emancipation or totalitarian control. The role of apocalypse in the advance of modernity is analyzed and how the once religious concept changes through secularization and adaptation by various movements on the political spectrum. The main goal is to achieve mutual appreciation by both religious and secular actors alike, who seek to enhance the common good. Both the church and secular society must humbly recognize that each needs the other. The church must recover its apocalyptic roots and the secular society admit its limitations.

In the study of Christian eschatological thought, virtually no attention has been given to past interpretations of the biblical phrase the new heavens and earth. John Duff uncovers the interpretations of this phrase that were extant in seventeenth-century England. These interpretations fall into two basic campsthose that understood the phrase metaphorically and those that understood the phrase literally.Some English divines believed the new heavens and earth referred to the new age of the gospel that commenced in the first century CE. At that time, God flung open the doors of salvation to Gentiles while at the same time bringing judgment to the Jewish nation for its failure to recognize and embrace Jesus as Messiah. This epic transition was fittingly described as a new heavens and earth.A second group of English interpreters believed the phrase stood for a yet future time when the political and religious circumstances of the world would change for the betterment of the church for one thousand years. The new heavens and earth stood for a future millennium in which Christ would establish his reign over the world prior to the day of resurrection and final judgment. Theologians who accepted a literal understanding believed the new heavens and earth described the renovation of the physical creation at the final judgment. Among this group, differences of opinion existed with respect to how much of the world would need cleansing, what creatures would be restored and of what use would a renovated world serve. The idea that the earth, and not heaven, would be the final abode of the saints emerged among a few obscure writers.

The Bible is the foundational text for the Byzantine Empire. The papers of this volume explore its reception through appropriation, adaptation and interpretation as articulated in all aspects of Byzantine society. Several sessions at the ISBL held in Vienna, 6 to 10 July 2014 on The Reception of the Bible in Greco-Roman Tradition,The Bible between Jews and Christians in Byzantium,Biblical Scholarship in Byzantium, and Biblical Foundations of Byzantine Identity and Culture built the basis of this volume.Various angles shed light on the Byzantine experience of the Bible. The wide range of source materials that inform the contributions to this volumefrom manuscripts and military handbooks to lead seals and pilgrim guides allows insights into a vivid liturgical tradition, which shapes Orthodox Christianity up today. As a thoroughly Christianized society, the Bible had sunk deep into the cultural DNA of Byzantium. The volume shows the multitude of strategies for the engagement with the Biblical text and the manifold ways in which the Bible message was experienced, articulated and brought to life on a daily basis.

There is a longstanding scholarly debate on the nature of prophecy in ancient Israel. Until now, no study has based itself on the semantics of the Hebrew lexeme nbi ("prophet"). This investigation by William L. Kelly discusses the nature and function of prophecy in the corpus of the Hebrew book of Jeremiah. It analyses all occurrences of nbi in Jeremiah and performs a close reading of three primary texts, Jeremiah 1.419, 23.940 and 27.128.17. The result is a detailed explanation of how prophecy works, and what it meant to call someone a nbi in ancient Israel. Combining the results of the semantic analysis and close readings, the study reaches conclusions for six main areas of study: (1) the function and nature of prophecy; (2) dreams and visions; (3) being sent; (4) prophets, priests and cult; (5) salvation and doom; and (6) legitimacy and authority. These conclusions explain the conceptual categories related to nbi in the corpus. I then situate these findings in two current debates, one on the definition of nbi and one on cultic prophecy. This study contributes to critical scholarship on prophecy in the ancient world, on the book of Jeremiah, and on prophets in ancient Israel. It is the first major study to analyse nbi based on its semantic associations. It adds to a growing consensus which understands prophecy as a form of divination. Contrary to some trends in Jeremiah scholarship, this work demonstrates the importance of a close reading of the Masoretic (Hebrew) text. This study uses a method of a general nature which can be applied to other texts. Thus there are significant implications for further research on prophecy and prophetic literature.

In 1611 Edmond Richer, the syndic of the Faculty of Theology of Paris, published a short but incisive defence of the conciliarist doctrine under the title De ecclesiastica et politica potestate. He claimed that this doctrine had been almost uninterruptedly followed by the University of the Paris since the time of the Council of Constance in the early 15th century. Within two years, at least six Latin, French or bilingual editions of the treatise saw the light as well as an English and a Dutch translation. The book was condemned at a meeting of the French bishops in March 1612 and its author was dismissed from his position of syndic of the Faculty of Theology a few months later. He withdrew from public life but remained influential. He continued to write in defence of the conciliarist doctrine and the so-called liberties of the Gallican Church until his death in 1631. He vehemently opposed Cardinal Bellarmines doctrine of the indirect power of popes in temporal matters but never subscribed to the doctrine of the divine power of kings. Most of his books were published posthumously.Philippe Denis retraces Edmond Richers career and examines his ecclesiological and political thinking. Without taking all the syndics opinions at face value, this volume commits itself to taking seriously Richers declared intention, which was to vindicate the teaching of the School of Paris and that of Jean Gerson in particular. Philippe Denis places the heated, sometimes aggressive, debates between Richer and his adversaries in the context of a double progression: that of the doctrine of an absolute monarchy, a form of government which had been developing since the troubles of the League, and that of the Ultramontane ideas, often disputed but supported with growing vigour, in France and elsewhere, in the context of the reception of the Council of Trent.Philippe Denis presents the English translation of his book originally published in French (Editions du Cerf in Paris, 2014).

Pál Ács discusses various aspects of the cultural and literary history of Hungary during the hundred years that followed the Battle of Mohács (1526) and the onset of the Reformation. The author focuses on the special Ottoman context of the Hungarian Reformation movements including the Protestant and Catholic Reformation and the spiritual reform of Erasmian intellectuals. The author argues that the Ottoman presence in Hungary could mean the co-existence of Ottoman bureaucrats and soldiers with the indigenous population. He explores the culture of occupied areas, the fascinating ways Christians came to terms with Muslim authorities, and the co-existence of Muslims and Christians.Acs treats not only the culture of the Reformation in an Ottoman context but also vice versa the Ottomans in a Protestant framework. As the studies show, the culture of the early modern Hungarian Reformation is extremely manifold and multi-layered. Historical documents such as theological, political and literary works and pieces of art formed an interpretive, unified whole in the self-representation of the era. Two interlinked and unifying ideas define this diversity: on the one hand the idea of European-ness, i.e. the idea of strong ties to a Christian Europe, and on the other the concept of Reformation itself. Despite its constant ideological fragmentation, the Reformation sought universalism in all its branches. As Acs shows, it was re-formatio in the original sense of the word, i.e. restoration, an attempt to restore a bygone perfection imagined to be ideal.

Kyle J. Dieleman focuses on the doctrinal and practical importance of Sunday observance in the early modern Reformed communities in the Low Countries. My project investigates the theological import of the Sabbath and its practical applications. The first step is to focus on how Dutch Reformed theologians conceived of the Sabbath. The theology of the Sabbath, I argue, moves over time from an emphasis on spiritual rest to participating in the ministries of the church to a strict rest from all work and recreation. The next step is to explore congregants actual Sunday practices. By attending to church governance records at the national, regional, and local levels the importance of proper Sabbath observance quickly becomes clear. The provincial synod records, classes records, and consistory records indicate that church authorities were adamant that church members faithfully attend sermon and catechism services, refrain from sinful practices, and abstain from recreational activities. Equally as telling as the observance demanded of church members is how church authorities responded. The church records portray these authorities as fretting over the disordered and unregulated nature of improper Sabbath observance. Having established the importance of the Sabbath in Dutch Reformed theology and lived piety, I argue the emphasis on Sunday observance is best understood as resulting from two main factors. First, the emphasis on proper Sunday observance is a result of the Reformed church authorities attempting to maintain the pious reputation of the Reformed faith and establish the identity of the Reformed Church amid multiple other confessional identities. Second, proper observance of the Sabbath was important because it ensured order within the church and society more broadly.

Carmichael argues that Johannes Cocceiuss theology of the Sabbath serves as a window through which one can view more clearly his federal theology or covenant theology. Covenant theology was the most distinctive feature of his theology. Moreover, Cocceius spent a notable portion of his life engaging in the Leiden Sabbath Controversies from 1655 to 1659, which played a key role in the split of the Reformed Dutch Republic into two socio-political blocsCocceians and Voetians. So far scholars have tended to overlook this critical phase in Cocceiuss theological development. Carmichael sheds light on it by looking at the theological texts that Cocceius wrote that absorbed his attention during this significant period. Casey Carmichael examines first the evolution of the problem of the Sabbath in Cocceiuss theological traditionReformed Orthodoxyin Chapters 24 and second the development of Cocceiuss doctrine of the Sabbath, structured around the Leiden Sabbath Controversies, in Chapters 58.