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The Lutheran Pastor Gotthilf Heinrich Ernst Muhlenberg (17531815) is remembered today as one of the pioneering figures in early American botany, which earned him the posthumous epithet "The American Linnaeus". This study traces Muhlenbergs contributions to American botany by reconstructing his vast transatlantic correspondence network over a period of more than 30 years. Working on the tenets of modern network studies and with information gathered from close to 700 original letters, diaries and publications, the present study places Muhlenberg both within his own web of correspondences and within the botanical discourse of his time. The result is a multi-faceted depiction of contemporary standards, codes and pitfalls of scientific communication in the so-called "Republic of Letters". As Muhlenbergs example shows, the very fabric of this Republic open exchange of information had a strong impact on the course and outcome of scientific research itself. This "Network Factor" becomes clearly visible in Muhlenbergs networking strategies, which he developed to protect his original work against the negative effects of the very medium he was working with.

Diente der Krieg als Katalysator religiosen Wandels? Dieser Frage geht Holger Berg am Beispiel Erfurts in der Zeit des Dreiigjahrigen Krieges nach. Zuwiderlaufende Thesen uber die Starkung bzw. den Abbruch bestehender Lehren infolge des Krieges werden anhand des reichhaltigen Quellenmaterials erstmals empirisch uberpruft. Wahrend u.a. Predigten und Erbauungsbucher die Lehren vierer Pfarrer dokumentieren, geben historiographische Handschriften Auskunft uber die Uberzeugungen der Laien. Der breit angelegte Blickwinkel auf Pfarrer und Gemeindeglieder bietet nuancierte Ergebnisse sowohl fur die Kirchengeschichte als auch fur die historisch-anthropologische Forschung. Wer sich fur den Zusammenhang von Leid, gelebtem Glauben und Kriegserfahrungen interessiert, gewinnt hier ungewohnliche Einblicke.

The Religious World of Quintus Aurelius Symmachus examines the religious life of one of the last pagan senators of Rome, dates c. 340-402, who lived in a tumultuous time during the Late Antique period of the Roman Empire, dying just a few years before the Western Empire began to break up. Symmachus could not have imagined the political reality developing so soon after his death, so he is important as a late example of the old Roman Western aristocracy, as well as one of the last pagans of Rome. He was regarded as the foremost orator of his time and was a prolific letter-writer who had correspondents in high places and throughout the Empire. He also filled the posts of Urban Prefect of Rome and Consul - and was the opponent of Bishop Ambrose of Milan during the so-called 384 CE "Altar of Victory Dispute," which was one episode of many leading to the " triumph" of Christianity over traditional Roman polytheism. Symmachus cache of 900 private letters and his official despatches while Urban Prefect have provided the raw material for this book.

This book is a volume in the Penn Press Anniversary Collection. To mark its 125th anniversary in 2015, the University of Pennsylvania Press rereleased more than 1,100 titles from Penn Presss distinguished backlist from 1899-1999 that had fallen out of print. Spanning an entire century, the Anniversary Collection offers peer-reviewed scholarship in a wide range of subject areas.

Tepe Hissar is a large Bronze Age site in northeastern Iran notable for its uninterrupted occupational history from the fifth to the second millennium B.C.E. The quantity and elaborateness of its excavated artifacts and funerary customs position the site prominently as a cultural bridge between Mesopotamia and Central Asia. To address questions of synchronic and diachronic nature relating to the changing levels of socioeconomic complexity in the region and across the greater Near East, chronological clarity is required. While Erich Schmidts 1931-32 excavations for the Penn Museum established the historical framework at Tepe Hissar, it was Robert H. Dyson, Jr., and his teams follow-up work in 1976 that presented a stratigraphically clearer sequence for the site with associated radiocarbon dates. Until now, however, a full study of the sites ceramic assemblages has not been published. This monograph brings to final publication a stratigraphically based chronology for the Early Bronze Age settlement at Tepe Hissar. Based on a full study of the ceramic assemblages excavated from radiocarbon-dated occupational phases in 1976 by Dyson and his team, and linked to Schmidts earlier ceramic sequence that was derived from a large corpus of grave contents, a new chronological framework for Tepe Hissar and its region is established. This clarified sequence provides ample evidence for the nature of the evolution and the abandonment of the site, and its chronological correlations on the northern Iranian plateau, situating it in time and space between Turkmenistan and Bactria on the one hand and Mesopotamia on the other.

Seit der Antike wei man um das Problem der Verwitterung von Gestein und der damit einhergehenden Verschlechterung des Zustands von Gebauden, Mauerwerk, Denkmalern, Skulpturen etc.Alle vier Jahre treffen sich auf einer internationalen Tagung Experten, die sich mit den entsprechenden Sachfragen beschaftigen. Der 14th International Congress on the Deterioration and Conservation of Stone findet im September 2020 in Gottingen statt. Er ist die wichtigste Veranstaltung zur Verbreitung des Wissens von Praktikern und Forschern, die im Bereich der Steinkonservierung zur Erhaltung des baulichen Kulturerbes arbeiten: Geowissenschaftler, Architekten, Bauspezialisten, Ingenieure, Restauratoren, Denkmalpfleger und Bauherren.Der Tagungsband mit uber 150 wissenschaftlichen Beitragen reprasentiert und erfasst den neuesten Stand der Technik auf diesem Gebiet.Themen sind: Charakterisierung von Schadensphanomenen von Steinen und verwandten Baumaterialien (Stuck, Putz, Mortel usw.) Methoden zur Untersuchung des Steinverfalls in situ und zerstorungsfreie Prufung Langzeituberwachung von Steindenkmalern und Gebauden Simulation und Modellierung des Zerfalls Technologien und Entwicklung verbesserter Bearbeitung und Verwendung von Stein in Neubauten Bewertung der Langzeitwirkung von Bearbeitungstechniken Auswirkungen des Klimawandels auf die Steinverwitterung des Kulturerbes Berichte zur Steinkonservierung: Fallstudien und Projekte Digitalisierung und Dokumentation von Steinkonservierung------The 14th International Congress on the Deterioration and Conservation of Stone, entitled MONUMENT FUTURE: DECAY AND CONSERVATION OF STONE is a quadrennial event that brings together a world-wide community of geoscientists, architects, building specialists, engineers, conservators, restorators, monument curators and building owners who are concerned about the conservation of cultural stone structures and objects. Since antiquity, the weathering and deterioration of historical buildings, masonry, monuments, sculptures etc. using natural stones has been a very well-known problem.This conference is the main gathering for the dissemination of knowledge in the field of stone deterioration issues. It represents and captures the state-of-the-art in the field of stone conservation and cultural heritage conservation with regards to the following topics: Characterisation of damage phenomena of stone and related building materials (plaster, rendering, mortar etc.) Methods for the investigation of stone decay; in-situ and non-destructive testing Long-term monitoring of stone monuments and buildings Simulation and modelling of decay Technology and development of improved treatments and use of stone in new buildings Assessment of long-term effects of treatments Impact of climate change on stone decay of Cultural Heritage Reports about stone conservation: case studies and projects Digitalization and documentation in stone conservation

This volume addresses the history of saints and sainthood in the Middle Ages in the Baltic Region, with a special focus on the cult of saints in Russia, Prussia, Finland, Sweden, Denmark, Estonia, and Latvia (Livonia). Essays explore such topics as the introduction of foreign (and "old") saints into new regions, the creation of new local cults of saints in newly Christianized regions, the role of the cult of saints in the creation of political and lay identities, and the potential role of saints in times of war.

Die Entdeckung "spektakulärer, herausragender und einzigartiger" Mosaike in der spätantiken Villa von Noheda in der Provinz Cuenca (Villar de Domingo García) hat in der internationalen Fachwelt für A

Slavery played a crucial economic and social role in the Roman history. Unfree individuals were employed to perform a wide range of duties in both the domestic environment and the public sphere. Along with the large population of private slaves who were owned by individual masters, and the smaller but influential group of Imperial slaves who were property of the emperors, there was another category of slaves: the so-called public slaves (servi publici). They were unfree individuals, owned by a community rather than a single master.Based on primary evidence, Franco Luciani aims to provide a comprehensive study of public slavery in the Roman world. By focusing on the use of public slaves in both Rome and in other cities of the Western Empire, as well as on the development of public slavery from the Middle Republic to Late Antiquity, Luciani attempts to define public slavery and to explore the historical significance of public slavery across time. He also analyses the role played by public slaves in the life of the community they belonged to. Specific attention is then drawn to manumission of public slaves and the legal status of freed public slaves. Finally, Luciani addresses the issue of the position of public slaves in Roman society.

The armies of Cyrus, Xerxes and Darius III are usually understood through the lens of classical literature and stereotypes about the orient. Sean Manning proposes a new understanding based on all kinds of evidence and the study of the ancient Near East. He examines the last century and a half of research in its historical and ideological context. Three core chapters treat Akkadian tablets, Aramaic documents, royal inscriptions, and artifacts as sources in their own right, not compliments to Herodotus. The different perspectives of Iranian philologists, Mesopotamian archaeologists and historians of ancient Greece are considered and addressed. A series of case studies show that the Greek and Latin texts can be read in unfamiliar ways which can survive stronger criticism than traditional interpretations. The kings troops were not literary foils to show the virtues of Greek hoplites or Scythian horsemen, they were agents of an early world empire which drew on long traditions and the latest innovations to gather money, soldiers, and workers and deploy them at the will of the king.

Ancient religion is traditionally understood in terms of myths, rituals and institutions, as transmitted in ancient texts. The studies gathered here focus instead on the lived experience of ancient cult and the places in which that experience was formed. They build on recent explorations of Lived Ancient Religion and also on new approaches to Material Ancient Religion. All ancient societies constructed elaborate sanctuaries. Their architecture and the collective rituals that took place there shaped collective experiences. Through case studies drawn from Ancient Egypt, the Greek World and the Roman Empire these themes are explored and elaborated. Together they indicate new ways of approaching ancient religious experience, collective and individual.

This is a rich collection of twenty-seven essays to mark the memory of Ioannis Taifacos. For two decades (19932013) Ioannis Taifacos worked hard to establish the Department of Classics and Philosophy as an autonomous administrative unit at the newly-founded University of Cyprus and to integrate it into the wider academic community. All the essays are original, and are written by an international group of established scholars, some of whom are among the most respected names in the field of Classics. The eleven papers of Part I deal with Greek and Latin literature: epic poetry, Polybius, Lucian, Tatian, Gregory of Nazianzus, the reception of Greek epigram in nineteenth-century Greece; Cicero, Caesar, Atellane Comedy, Ovid, and the bilingual poetry of Late Antiquity. Part II features five papers on Greek and Latin scholarship, and three on papyrological, rhetorical and linguistic topics: Valerius Probus, Priscian, John of Alexandria (Aelius Herodian), the Greek Etymologica, prototypon/absolutum in Latin grammatical terminology; the papyrus rolls of the Aristotelian Constitution of Athens and HerodasMimiambs; George of Trebizond; a graecism in Latin syntax. Part III, made up of seven papers, is devoted to Anaximander, Plato, Aristotle, Clearchus, Stoics, Cynics, Galen, and Nicolaus Cusanus. Finally, Part IV contains a paper on the Arabian policy of Trajan.

How did a kremlin, a fortified monastery or a wooden church in Russia become part of the heritage of the entire world? Corinne Geering traces the development of international cooperation in conservation since the 1960s, highlighting the role of experts and sites from the Soviet Union and later the Russian Federation in UNESCO and ICOMOS. Despite the ideological divide, the notion of world heritage gained momentum in the decades following World War II. Divergent interests at the local, national and international levels had to be negotiated when shaping the Soviet and Russian cultural heritage displayed to the world. The socialist discourse of world heritage was re-evaluated during perestroika and re-integrated as UNESCO World Heritage in a new state and international order in the 1990s.

This book does not only deal with the history, but also with the effects of the Reformation over the mentality, education and scientifical research among Hungarians during the last five centuries. The spirit of the Reformation has not only been a church-forming factor, but also a force of nation-building and salvation. This volume includes 17 studies of Hungarian Reformed theologians presented at a conference in November 2016. The main goal was to give an overview of the most recent research results in history and theology regarding Reformation and its effects over society and mentality among Hungarians. The contributors come from various Hungarian theological universities from the Carpathian basin, thus the book is an overview of their research topics and results.The City Cluj-Napoca was, became and remained an important center of the Reformation, as significant events took place in its surroundings as well. The Faculty of Reformed Theology of the Babe-Bolyai University and the Protestant Theological Institute has always functioned in an environment, where the challenges of multi-confessionalism and multiethnicity are also present beside interdisciplinarity.

This interdisciplinary study examines the poetic and political representation of the Palatine Marriage in London in 1613 by analysing the vast number of English and Neo-Latin festive / nuptial poetry and prose written on the occasion of the marriage of Count Palatine Frederick V (15961632) and Princess Elizabeth Stuart (15961662), stylised and represented as heroes and paragon figures of Protestant Europe. Taking a literary and cultural studies approach, the study explores courtly representational modes used to convey the propagandist and prophetic messages of the marriage, suggesting that the nuptial union follows a heavenly plan and fulfils the hopes of the formation of a pan-Protestant empire and a future bulwark against the imminent threats of Catholic Habsburg. In this respect the study aims to provide an alternative perspective on Britain, Europe and militant pan-Protestantism.

In vormodernen Monarchien beobachten wir Widerspruch und Widerstand gegen einzelne Herrscher, ihre politischen Entscheidungen und ihre Verwaltung, aber in der Regel keine direkten Angriffe auf die Ordnungsprinzipien und das politische System. Wenn Unzufriedenheit zu Aufstanden und Revolten fuhrten, blieb es normalerweise bei einem bloen Austausch des Regenten. Subtilere Methoden der Herrscherkritik konnten sich mittels fester Usancen oder spezifischer Codes und Spielregeln innerhalb des legalen Rahmens Gehor verschaffen und zielten darauf ab, die Qualitaten des Regenten zu verbessern oder spezifische Modi der Amtsfuhrung zu reformieren. Diese verschiedenen Formen und Praktiken von Herrscherkritik in vormodernen monarchischen Gesellschaften sind Gegenstand dieses Bandes.When looking at pre-modern monarchical societies, one does not expect to observe fundamental dissent directed at the social order as such or at the political system. As a rule, criticism was limited to individual monarchs, their performance and decisions. While discontent could lead to insurrection and rebellion, which normally only culminated in the ruler being replaced by another monarchical figurehead, the subtler methods of voicing criticism were applied within a framework of legality, of a set of customs or of a code of rules of the game and intended to improve the performance of the incumbent or reform his conduct at court. The various forms of verbal or staged censure of rulers in pre-modern monarchical societies are the subject of this volume.

Some of the most dramatic new discoveries in Asia Minor have been made at Gordion, the Phrygian capital that controlled much of central Asia Minor for close to two centuries. The most famous ruler of the kingdom was Midas, who regularly negotiated with Greeks in the west and Assyrians in the east during his reign. Excavations have been conducted at Gordion over the course of the last 60 years, all under the auspices of the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology. In spite of the economic and political importance of Gordion and the Phrygians, the site is consistently omitted from courses in Old World archaeology, primarily because Gordion lies too far to the west for many Near Eastern archaeologists, and too far to the east for classical archaeologists. Moreover, there is no book that offers a comprehensive and up-to-date assessment of the material culture of Gordion during the Phrygian period, a gap that will be filled by this volume. The chapters cover all aspects of Gordions Phrygian settlement topography from the arrival of the Phrygians in the tenth century B.C. through the arrival of Alexander the Great in 333 B.C., focusing on the sites changing topography and the consistently fluctuating interaction between the inhabitants and the landscape. A reexamination of the material culture of Phrygian Gordion is particularly timely, given the dramatic recent changes in the sites chronology, wherein the dates of many discoveries have changed by as much as a century. The authors are among the leading experts in Near Eastern archaeology, historic preservation, paleobotany, and ancient furniture, and their articles highlight the interdisciplinary nature of the Gordion project. A significant component of the book is a new color phase plan of the site that succinctly presents the topography in diachronic perspective.

Within a single decade (334325 BC) Alexander III of Macedon conquered much of the known world of his time, creating an empire that stretched from the Balkans to India and southern Egypt. His clear intention of establishing permanent dominion over this huge and culturally diverse territory raises questions about whether and how he tried to legitimate his position and about the reactions of various groups subject to his rule: Macedonians, Greeks, the army, indigenous elites. Starting from Max Webers "Herrschaftssoziologie", the 15 authors discuss Alexanders strategies of legitimation as well as the motives his subjects may have had for offering him obedience. The analysis of monarchical representation and political communication in these case-studies on symbolic performances and economic, administrative and religious measures sheds new light on the reasons for the swift Macedonian conquest: It appears that Alexander and his staff owed their success not only to their military talent but also to their communication skills and their capacity to cater to the expectations of their audiences.

1. The Chronici canones of Eusebius of Caesarea: Structure, Content, and Chronology, AD 282-325. 2. The Continuatio Antiochiensis Eusebii: A Chronicle of Antioch and the Roman Near East during the Reigns of Constantine and Constantius II, AD 325-350.Two detailed studies based upon the reconstructed Greek texts of the last portion of the chronicle of Eusebius of Caesarea and a lost continuation of Eusebius written in Antioch in 350. The commentary of the former concentrates on Eusebius and the writing of the chronicle, that of the latter on a detailed analysis of the events narrated by the chronicler from 325 to 350."Mit beachtlichem Flei und stupender Kenntnis der Quellen und Sekundarliteratur hat Burgess zwei bedeutsame Studien vorgelegt [] die neue Wege eroffnen. Eine beeindruckende Arbeit"Byzantinische Zeitschrift"Das Studium der Arbeit von Burgess ist fortan allen Erforschern des spatantiken ostlichen Romischen Reiches nachdrucklich zu empfehlen"Oriens Christianus"These are rich and detailed studies, worthy of note in JSS because of the importance of the reconstructed sources for the Roman-Byzantine Near East."Journal of Semitic Studies

During Egypts Eighteenth Dynasty (ca. 1550-1292 BCE), the New Kingdom pharaohs campaigned repeatedly in Syria and the Levant, establishing political control over much of the region. As a result of these conquests, the rulers of Levantine city-states sent letters written in Akkadian in the cuneiform script on clay tablets to the Egyptian pharaohs. So, too, did the kings of the other great geopolitical powers of the time--Assyria, Babylonia, Hatti, and Mittani--maintain an active diplomatic correspondence with Egypts pharaohs. Beginning in the nineteenth century CE, local farmers and, later, archaeologists working at Akhetaten (modern Tell el-Amarna), the one-time Egyptian capital, discovered remnants of this correspondence, mostly dating to the reigns of Amenhotep III (ca. 1388-1350 BCE) and his son and successor Akhenaten (ca. 1350-1333 BCE), with some dating to Tutankhamun (ca. 1333-1323). This is a period of increasing friction as the great powers sought to extend their borders. The Amarna Letters thus illuminate a pivotal point in Egypts foreign relations during the Late Bronze Age. Even though they provide us with a narrow window of only about thirty years time (1358-1325 BCE), they are an important witness to the general nature of Egypts diplomatic relations during the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Dynasties. This new, digitally borne edition of the Amarna Letters offers the first complete collection of the letters with responsible transliterations that have been checked against available photographs and hand copies; clear and consistent translations; and an up-to-date and extensive bibliography. As such it is, and will remain, an essential resource.